2013년 11월 24일 일요일

About 'graduate schools education'|IU School of Education graduate student awarded prestigious Wells Fellowship







About 'graduate schools education'|IU School of Education graduate student awarded prestigious Wells Fellowship








Formal               higher               education               has               been               a               fixture               in               the               United               States               since               its               inception               by               the               Europeans               traveling               to               America               during               the               colonial               era.

Consequently,               what               would               eventually               merge               as               the               focal               point               of               pedagogy               and               participation               in               early               American               colleges               centered               on               young,               often               wealthy,               White               men.

Teaching               and               learning               for               these               young               men               emphasized               traditional               lessons               in               classical               education               (Thelin,               2004).

Understandably,               the               culture               of               higher               education               has               evolved               since               the               17th               century,               as               it               now               reflects               a               different               level               of               access,               participation,               learning,               and               teaching.

Modern               day               higher               education               enables               an               individual               to               have               access               to               some               form               of               college               education               uninhibited.

The               student               demographic               reflected               on               college               and               university               campuses               across               America               today               is               relatively               diverse.

A               stroll               on               the               lawn               at               many               institutions               will               yield               a               student               population               that               varies               in               gender,               age,               racial               and               ethnic               background,               achievement               level,               sexual               orientation,               and               socio-economic               status               (among               others).

Arguably,               the               presence               of               students               from               culturally               diverse               backgrounds               on               college               campuses               (particularly               at               predominantly               White               institutions),               has               reduced               the               homogenous               representation               that               was               historically               apparent               in               most               campus               environments.

In               2003,               "students               of               color               made               up               27.8               percent               of               the               nearly               17               million               students               on               America's               colleges               campuses,               up               from               21.8               percent               in               1993"               (American               Council               on               Education,               2010,               para.

1).

Although               these               gains               in               college               enrollment               are               significant,               African               American               and               Hispanic               students               continued               to               lag               behind               their               white               counterparts.

From               2002-2004,               "47.3               percent               of               white               high               school               graduates               age               18               to               24               attended               college               compared               with               41.1               percent               of               African               Americans               and               35.2               percent               of               Hispanics"               (American               Council               on               Education,               2010,               para               2).
               As               suggested               above,               the               higher               education               environment               represents               a               high               level               of               enrollment               and               participation               diversity.

Thus,               the               purpose               of               this               literature               review               is               to               discuss               the               enrollment               and               participation               trends               of               student               populations               in               American               higher               education.

The               review               will               include               special               discussion               on               African               American               male               enrollment               and               participation               in               higher               education,               while               emphasizing               select               sub-populations               of               African               American               males.

In               consonance               with               language               in               the               literature,               the               terms               "Black"               and               "African               American"               are               interchangeable               throughout               this               review.
               Benefits               of               College               Participation               and               Graduation               Attainment               
               Financial               Benefits               
               With               rising               educational               costs,               many               people               question               the               value               of               a               college               education.

Standler               (2001)               argued               against               the               benefits               of               a               college               education.

In               commenting               on               the               conventional               reasons               for               attending               college,               Standler               (2001)               contended               that               more               education               does               not               always               result               in               higher               incomes.

For               example,               "entertainers               and               professional               athletes               in               the               USA               earn               much               more               than               a               scientist               and               an               engineer"               (Criticism               of               Economic               Justification               for               Education               section,               #5).

Standler               (2001)               pointed               out               a               discrepancy               in               the               values               among               higher               education               officials;               in               that,               the               football               coach               makes               a               larger               salary               than               does               a               professor.
               Despite               skepticism               as               to               the               actual               benefits               of               a               college               education,               there               are               some               recognizable               advantages               of               obtaining               a               college               degree.

Perhaps               the               broadest               gain               for               college               participation               is               the               individual's               return               on               their               educational               investment.

The               lifetime               earnings               between               high               school               and               college               graduates               are               significant.

Day               and               Newburger               (2002)               noted               that               over               the               course               of               an               adult's               working               life,               bachelor's               degree               holders               earn               an               average               of               $2.1               million;               while               those               with               an               associate's               degree               or               high               school               diploma               earn               about               $1.6               million,               and               $1.2               million,               respectively.

Clearly,               a               "college               graduate               earns               more               than               someone               with               only               a               high               school               diploma"               (Callan,               2001,               p.

86).

Furthermore,               those               who               go               on               to               attain               a               graduate               degree               have               the               potential               to               earn               much               more.
               Non-Monetary               Benefits               
               Average               earnings               information,               as               cited               by               Day               and               Newburger               (2002),               confirms               that               the               power               of               earning               improves               with               higher               levels               of               education.

Aside               from               higher               levels               of               spending               power               and               savings,               college               graduates               receive               a               host               of               intangible               benefits.

For               example,               a               college               graduate               is               more               likely               to               have               increased               chances               of               professional               mobility,               therefore               giving               them               an               occupational               edge.

College               graduates               can               improve               the               quality               of               life               for               their               offspring               (Institute               for               Higher               Education               Policy,               as               cited               in               Porter,               2002).

This               comes               with               having               options               in               housing,               education,               and               healthcare.

They               also               are               involved               in               more               hobbies,               leisure               and               recreational               activities               (Institute               for               Higher               Education               Policy,               as               cited               in               Porter,               2002).
               A               report               published               by               the               Carnegie               Foundation               discussed               non-monetary               benefits               for               students               who               participate               in               higher               education.

For               example,               post-secondary               education               students               tend               "to               become               open-minded,               more               cultured,               more               rational,               more               consistent               and               less               authoritarian;               these               benefits               are               also               passed               along               to               succeeding               generations"               (Rowley               &               Hurtado,               as               cited               in               Porter,               2002,               par.

6).

Furthermore,               individuals               who               participate               in               college               have               lower               levels               of               prejudice,               are               knowledgeable               of               world               affairs,               and               have               an               improved               social               status               (Porter,               2002).

Alleman,               Stimpson               &               Holly               (2009)               identified               how               educated               citizens               benefit               society.

They               emphasized               that               college               graduates               "report               better               health,               volunteer               more               frequently,               give               blood               more               often,               turn               out               in               greater               numbers               to               vote,               and               are               more               engaged               with               their               children's               education"               (Baum               &               Ma,               as               cited               in               Alleman,               Stimpson               &               Holly,               2009,               p.

3).

Furthermore,               educated               citizens               are               more               likely               to               "support               public               and               private               assistance               initiatives               through               their               tax               dollars               and               their               voluntary               giving"               (p.

3).

Thus,               college               educated               individuals               help               to               reduce               the               tax               burden               placed               on               state               and               local               governments               (Alleman               et               al.,               2009).
               As               part               of               a               study               that               examined               40               years               of               data               on               college               freshmen               characteristics,               students               offered               feedback               and               described               their               reasons               for               attending               college.

Hareyan               (2007)               summarized               select               student               responses               as               a               narrative               below:
               In               1976,               and               again               in               2006,               students               said               the               two               most               important               reasons               for               attending               college               were               "To               learn               about               things               that               interest               me"               and               "To               get               a               better               job."               In               2006,               earning               more               money               was               a               close               third,               with               69               percent               of               students               saying               that               "To               be               able               to               make               more               money"               was               a               very               important               reason               for               going               to               college,               compared               with               49.9               percent               of               incoming               students               in               1976.

And               in               2006,               66.5               percent               of               students               indicated               that               "the               chief               benefit               of               a               college               education               is               that               it               increases               one's               earning               power."               (par.

17)
               As               noted               above,               66.5               percent               of               students               perceived               that               increased               earning               power               is               the               main               benefit               of               a               college               education.

This               statement               validates               the               correlation               between               education               and               wages               over               the               course               of               a               lifetime               for               a               working               adult               (per               U.S.

census               data).

In               many               cases,               an               investment               in               a               college               education               can               be               a               burden,               especially               for               low-income               people.
               Intersecting               Educational               Access,               Participation,               and               Affordability               
               A               household's               financial               status               affects               a               student's               ability               to               participate               in               higher               education               (Hareyan,               2007).

Today's               college               student               comes               from               a               household               where               the               median               income               is               60               percent               above               the               national               average.

In               2005,               the               median               household               income               of               entering               college               freshmen               was               $74,000,               compared               to               the               national               average               of               $46,326               (Hareyan,               2007).

The               financial               standing               of               these               students               promotes               greater               opportunities               for               accessing               and               paying               for               higher               education.

For               the               financially               advantaged               student               (those               individuals               coming               from               a               wealthy               family),               the               likelihood               they               will               enroll               in               college               prior               to               age               24               is               80               percent.On               the               other               hand,               financially               disadvantaged               students               (those               with               median               incomes               less               than               $24,500)               only               have               a               35               percent               chance               of               enrolling               in               college               before               age               24.

This               financial               gap               demonstrates               a               significant               correlation               between               household               income               and               enrollment               in               higher               education               (Callan,               2001).

The               gap               also               informs               policymakers               of               the               need               to               improve               policies               around               increasing               college               participation               for               financially               disadvantaged               students.
               Influence               of               Policies               and               Practices               
               Policies               and               practices               have               influenced               who               can               access               higher               education,               and               who               has               the               ability               to               pay               the               rising               cost               of               tuition               and               fees.

During               the               1980s               and               1990s,               state               and               federal               policies               tended               to               favor               middle               and               upper               class               citizens.

Political               and               societal               trends               influenced               state               policymakers               to               create               policies               that               "shifted               responsibility               for               higher               education               away               from               taxpayers               and               toward               students               and               their               families"               (Callan,               2001,               p.

87).

While               the               intent               of               such               policies               was               to               reform               higher               education,               lower               income               students               remained               at               a               disadvantage.

Tuition               increases               and               lower               amounts               of               need-based               financial               aid               reduced               these               students's               ability               to               participate               in               and               pay               for               college.
               These               policies               changed               the               trend               of               student               enrollment               in               many               states               across               the               nation.

In               the               state               university               and               community               college               systems               of               California,               "the               combination               of               tuition               increases               and               reduced               state               appropriations               drove               down               higher               education               enrollments               by               two               hundred               thousand               at               a               time               when               the               rate               of               unemployment               was               approaching               10               percent"               (Callan,               2001,               p.

87).

State               policies               that               negatively               affect               lower               income               students               are               detrimental               to               the               growth               of               a               stable               and               diversified               workforce.

With               this,               needed               policies               are               those               that               enhance               higher               education               participation               for               students               with               financial               hardships.

There               is               a               need               for               greater               advocacy               on               behalf               of               lower               income               students               to               influence               policy               in               this               area.
               This               section               partially               discussed               how               a               student's               socioeconomic               background               influences               their               ability               to               access               and               pay               for               higher               education.

As               mentioned               previously,               family               income               tends               to               correlate               with               higher               education               access               and               participation.

Students               from               high-income               families               are               more               likely               to               enroll               in               college,               compared               to               students               from               low-income               families.

Closing               the               gap               in               higher               education               access               and               affordability               between               these               two               groups               is               not               straightforward.

Sound               policies,               which               are               targeted               and               realistic,               could               facilitate               the               achievement               of               this               goal.

While               relevant               to               this               section,               a               thorough               discussion               on               specific               policy               alternatives               would               be               an               exhaustive               task,               and               goes               beyond               the               scope               of               this               literature               review.
               College               Enrollment               and               Attendance               
               In               fall               2008,               college               enrollment               for               undergraduate               and               post-undergraduate               students               was               approximately               19.1               million               students.

Largely,               undergraduate               enrollment               was               greater               during               the               1970s               (42               percent),               compared               to               14               percent               in               the               1980s.

Undergraduate               enrollment               increased               in               the               1990s               by               10               percent,               "and               by               24               percent               between               2000               and               2008"               (Snyder,               2010,               p.

14).

Statistical               information               shows               that               undergraduate               student               enrollment               peaked               at               16.4               million               students               in               2008.

As               evident               from               enrollment               trends               between               1970               and               2008,               total               college               student               participation               may               show               steady               increases               over               time               (Snyder,               2010).
               Enrollment               by               Gender               
               A               greater               number               of               undergraduate               females               (10.9               million)               than               males               (8.2               million)               enrolled               during               the               fall               of               2008.

Enrollment               trends               for               females               and               males               rose               steadily               between               1990               and               2008.

During               this               period,               female               enrollment               rose               by               45               percent               while               male               enrollments               climbed               by               30               percent.

Similarly,               between               2000               and               2008,               female               enrollment               (26               percent)               was               slightly               larger               than               male               enrollment               (22               percent)               (Snyder,               2010).

The               enrollment               trend               between               females               and               males               was               consistent               for               attendance               status               (full-time               vs.

part-time)               and               institutional               control               types               (public               vs.

private).

These               current               trends               suggest               that               female               enrollment               will               continue               to               surpass               male               student               enrollment               over               a               40-year               period.

However,               these               trends               are               inconclusive,               as               societal               circumstances               will               shape               future               enrollment.


               
               Institutional               Control               Types               and               Attendance               Status               Enrollment               
               At               the               undergraduate               level,               "12.1               million               students               attended               4-year               colleges               and               universities               and               7.0               million               attended               2-year               colleges"               (Snyder,               2010,               p.

10).

Between               1990               and               2008,               there               was               a               50               percent               increase               in               the               total               enrollment               of               full-time               students;               and               the               total               enrollment               of               part-time               students               increased               to               23               percent.

For               institutional               control               types               (public               or               private               institutions)               and               attendance               statuses               (full-time               or               part-time               attendance),               enrollment               trends               rose               steadily               between               1990               and               2008.

In               2008,               4-year               public               institutions               had               the               largest               student               enrollment               (approximately               7.3               million)               among               institutional               control               types               (Snyder,               2010).

This               large               enrollment               may               suggest               a               number               of               factors               that               influenced               the               college               decision-making               process               (i.e.,               tuition               costs,               financial               aid,               lenient               admissions               policy,               campus               diversity,               etc.)               for               students               who               attended               public               institutions.


               
               Race               and               Ethnicity               Enrollment               
               There               has               been               a               decreasing               trend               in               the               enrollment               percentage               of               White               students               in               higher               education.

While               this               trend               persists,               the               percentage               of               racial               and               ethnic               minority               students               continue               to               increase.

As               evidence               of               this               downward               trend               for               White               students,               78               percent               of               all               college               students               in               1990               were               White,               compared               to               63               percent               in               2008.

Between               1990               and               2008,               "the               percentage               of               students               who               were               Black               rose               from               9               to               14               percent;               the               percentage               who               were               Hispanic               rose               from               6               to               12               percent;               and               the               percentage               who               were               Asian/Pacific               Islander               rose               from               4               percent               to               7               percent"               (Snyder,               2010,               p.

13).

The               increase               in               racial               and               ethnic               minority               participation               reflects               a               changing               demographic               in               higher               education.

Policies               and               practices               that               promote               access               for               racial               and               ethnic               minorities               partially               attribute               to               the               demographic               shift               in               higher               education.

A               more               likely               reason               for               this               increase               is               that               the               United               States               is               changing               and               becoming               more               diverse,               hence               the               greater               presence               of               racial               and               ethnic               minorities               on               college               campuses.
               African               American               Male               College               Student               Enrollment               and               Participation               
               Discourse               on               the               status               of               African               American               males               in               higher               education               is               commonplace.

Discussion               typically               centers               on               the               significant               disparities               in               enrollment,               retention,               and               poor               achievement               among               Black               males.

Black               males               are               the               least               likely               to               enroll               in               college               and               graduate.

The               larger               majority               of               African               Americans               who               enroll               in               college               are               women               (U.S.

Department               of               Education,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn,               Blakewood               &               DeVita,               2008).

Forthcoming               in               this               literature               review               is               descriptive               information               on               trends               in               enrollment               and               participation               of               African               American               males               in               college.

This               information               will               offer               a               snapshot               to               scholars               and               the               public               on               the               status               of               African               American               male               students               in               higher               education.
               Public               policies               enacted               in               the               1980s               and               1990s               have               perpetuated               disparities               in               enrollment,               retention,               and               achievement.

For               example,               endorsed               were               zero               tolerance               policies               in               the               1990s,               which               disproportionately               excluded               problematic               Black               youth               from               K-12               public               schools               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006).In               turn,               these               policies               invariably               affected               Black               male               student               enrollment               in               higher               education.

Higher               education               officials               agree               that               educational               parity               is               lacking               for               African               American               male               college               students.

The               idea               solution               is               effective               policies               and               solution-driven               practices               to               increase               parity.

Nonetheless,ongoing               policy               and               scholarly               research               could               inform               higher               education               officials               of               how               to               reduce               disparities               for               African               American               males.

The               next               few               sections               of               this               literature               review               will               specifically               discuss               the               enrollment               and               participation               of               African               American               males               in               college.

Further               discussion               will               emphasize               content               on               a               select               few               subgroup               populations               of               African               American               male               students.
               African               American               Male               Student               Enrollment               
               In               2007,               Black               males               were               12               percent               of               the               total               college               student               population.

This               percentage               is               significantly               lower               than               the               percentage               of               White               male               students               enrolled               at               this               same               time               (64.2               percent)               (Almanac,               Profile,               2009).

The               only               encouraging               news               from               this               is               that               Black               male               enrollment               had               risen               steadily               between               1990               and               2007.

Approximately               484,700               students               enrolled               in               the               fall               of               1990,               compared               to               838,100               students               enrolled               in               2007.

This               reflects               a               43               percent               increase               in               Black               male               student               enrollment               between               these               two               periods               (Almanac,               College               Enrollment,               2009).

The               reasons               attributing               to               this               increase               are               significant,               and               indeed               warrant               further               discussion.

However,               an               in-depth               discussion               and               analysis               of               this               trend               are               beyond               the               scope               of               this               literature               review.
               Black               Subgroup               Populations               in               Higher               Education               
               Harper               ("Black               Male,"               2006)               gives               credit               to               researchers               who               continue               to               examine               various               aspects               of               the               Black               student               experience               in               higher               education,               namely               in               the               context               of               traditionally               White               colleges               and               universities.

A               sample               of               the               literature               on               Black               students               centers               on               improving               higher               education               access,               ways               of               negotiating               feelings               of               isolation               and               alienation               at               PWIs,               and               the               impact               of               race               and               discrimination               on               student               persistence.

Remarkably,               much               of               this               research               advanced               the               visibility               of               Black               students               in               higher               education.

Perhaps               more               importantly,               it               opened               the               doors               for               future               research               on               an               infinite               number               of               gender               subgroups               within               the               Black               race               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006).
               Harper's               ("Black               Male,"               2006)               report               on               the               status               of               Black               male               students               at               public               flagship               universities               in               the               U.S.

have               paved               the               way               for               research               opportunities               on               Black               student               subgroups.

Few               research               studies               have               considered               the               trends,               outcomes,               and               experiences               of               gender               specific               subgroups               in               higher               education.

As               a               long-standing               tradition,               "most               contemporary               researchers               have               opted               to               compare               black               students               at               PWIs               to               their               same-race               counterparts               at               Historically               Black               Colleges               and               Universities"               (p.

1).

In               the               account,               Harper               ("Black               Male,"               2006)               reported               that,               "black               students               have               long               been               treated               as               a               monolithic               group"               (p.

1).
               An               opportunity               currently               exists               for               research               around               understanding               enrollment               and               participation               trends               of               Black               student               subgroups.

Supplemental               analyses               could               focus               on               the               dual               impact               of               this               population               on               the               larger               higher               education               community.

There               is               a               need               for               other               research               to               investigate               the               qualitative               experiences               of               Black               student               subgroups.

Such               examination               could               yield               substantive               information               about               this               population.

Furthermore,               responsive               higher               education               officials               could               create               policies               that               effectively               meet               the               academic               and               social               needs               for               this               group.

The               next               section               of               this               literature               review               will               offer               insight               from               the               research               on               select               subgroups               of               African               American               males               in               higher               education.

The               subgroups               to               be               included               for               discussion               are               Black               male               student-athletes,               gay               African               American               males,               and               Black               Greek               organizational               members.
               Black               Male               Student-Athletes               
               The               underrepresentation               of               Black               males               in               college               degree               programs               is               evident.

In               2004,               nearly               11               percent               of               undergraduate               students               in               all               institutions               were               Black               males.

Disproportionate               representation               of               Black               male               students               in               college               sports               is               prevalent,especially               at               the               NCAA               Division               I               level.

Harper               ("Black               Male,"               2006)               noted               that               "black               men               can               be               easily               found               on               most               college               or               university               intercollegiate               sports               teams"               (p.

5).

Anyperson               attending               Division               I               level               games               can               attest               to               this               reality.

In               2004,               the               percentage               of               Black               male               representation               in               Division               I               athletics               was               30.5               percent.

Black               male               student-athlete               participation               was               greater               in               football               and               basketball,               respectively               at               54.6               percent               and               60.8               percent               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006).
               As               discussed               throughout               this               literature               review,               Black               males               are               among               the               least               likely               to               persist               and               graduate               from               degree               programs.

In               general,               "African               American               males               have               the               highest               dropout               rates               among               college               athletes,               and               academic               variables               have               most               often               been               cited               as               the               contributing               factor"               (Messer,               2006,               p.

155).

Across               four               cohorts               of               college               student-athletes               between               1995               and               1999,               "47               percent               of               black               men               graduated               within               six               years,               compared               to               60               percent               of               white               males               and               62               percent               of               student-athletes               overall"               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006,               p.

8).

The               graduation               trend               among               Black               males               has               remained               consisted               in               recent               years.

In               2004,               the               graduation               rate               of               Black               male               student-athletes               was               48%,               compared               to               62.5%               for               White               student-athletes               (Messer,               2006).

These               trends               make               it               clear               that               over               time,               Black               male               student-athletes               "cannot               be               perceived               as               particularly               successful               in               graduating               from               college               (p.

155).

Nonetheless,               an               overrepresentation               of               Black               men               as               Division               I               student-athletes               may               signify               a               lack               of               institutional               responsibility,               among               other               reasons.
               Institutions               appear               to               lack               awareness               of               the               disproportion               of               Black               male               students               and               student-athletes.

Any               level               of               cognizance               should               prompt               institutional               leaders               to               react               to               the               disproportion               as               it               stands.

Furthermore,               institutions               are               responsible               for               being               proactive,               and               visualizing               proportionate               representation               among               all               Black               male               students               and               student-athletes               on               their               campuses.

Higher               education               faculty,               staff               and               others               who               have               a               stake               in               the               success               of               Black               male               student-athletes               understand               that               policies,               sound               ethics,               and               effective               practices               could               correct               the               high               levels               of               disproportion               in               the               classroom               and               athletic               arenas.

There               is               a               view               that               advocating               for               policy               around               intercollegiate               athletics               is               political               and               complex               at               most               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006).

Institutions               are               likely               to               resent               pressure               against               generating               revenue               from               high               profile               sports               (namely               football               and               basketball)               with               high               profile               Black               student-athletes.
               Policy               measures               influence               how               institutions               correct               disproportion               among               Black               student-athletes.

For               example,               Harper               ("Black               Male,"               2006)               noted               that               institutions               must               "maintain               affirmative               action               and               race-sensitive               college               admissions               policies"               (p.

11).

As               a               policy               and               practice,               affirmative               action               and               race-sensitive               admissions               could               work               to               improve               equity               in               enrollments               at               all               institutions,               especially               where               the               enrollment               of               Black               male               students/student-athletes               are               slightly               proportioned               (Harper,               "Black               Male,"               2006).

While               Black               student               proportion               in               Division               I               athletics               remains               a               goal,               it               is               just               as               important               to               ensure               retention               among               this               group.
               On               a               positive               note,               the               athletic               departments               at               many               Division               I               schools               are               structured               to               provide               comprehensive               academic               support               services               to               their               student-athletes.

Tutoring,               mentoring               and               financial               support               are               available               to               support               the               retention               of               Black               male               student-athletes,               as               they               pursue               a               college               degree               (Messer,               2006).

A               major               inhibition               to               the               success               of               these               students               is               their               lack               of               academic               unpreparedness,               "which               can               lead               to               poor               performance               in               the               classroom"               (p.

168).

While               these               students               are               "spotlighted"               on               the               field               for               their               athletic               prowess,               their               low               performance               in               the               classroom               can               "lead               to               diminished               self-confidence               and               the               inability               to               see               themselves               as               successful"               (Messer,               2006,               p.

168).

Negative               stereotypes               by               faculty               and               peers               contribute               to               added               amounts               of               stress               that               these               students               must               try               to               manage.

Perpetuated               through               mass               media               messages               are               the               negative               stereotypes               that               depict               Black               males.

hooks               (as               cited               in               Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006)               noted               that               more               than               any               other               group               of               males               in               society,               Black               males               are               perceived               as               lacking               in               intellect,               and               are               "far               more               likely               to               be               affirmed               for               appearing               dumb"               (pp.

337-338).

Black               males               internalize               these               messages,               further               diminishing               their               capacity               to               succeed.
               Messer               (2006)               offered               a               number               of               recommendations,               which               may               be               invaluable               to               sustain               Black               male               student-athletes               through               graduation.

Prior               to               enrollment,               and               reinforced               throughout,               coaches               and               administrators               must               outline               the               expectations               of               the               Black               student-athlete               as               a               student.

This               includes               verbally               informing               students               of               their               responsibilities               and               obligations               as               college               students.

Monitoring               student               grades               and               providing               academic               and               athletic               supports               are               some               techniques               that               may               also               benefit               the               student-athlete               (Messer,               2006).

African               American               coaches,               faculty,               administrators,               and               other               staff               of               color               "should               be               employed               to               provide               African               American               male               student               athletes               with               more               role               models               and               potential               sources               for               mentoring               relationships"               (p.

168).

Furthermore,               career               education               development               outside               of               professional               sports               is               useful               for               this               population.

It               should               be               "specifically               aimed               at               continuing               nonprofessional               careers               that               use               their               sports               expertise"               (p.

169).

While               these               recommendations               are               not               exhaustive,               the               ultimate               goal               is               to               create               an               education               environment               that               is               conducive               to               promoting               success               among               Black               male               student-athletes               (Messer,               2006).
               African               American               Gay               Men               
               Much               of               the               literature               on               sexual               orientation               indicates               that               approximately               10-20               percent               of               the               American               population               identify               as               gay,               lesbian,               or               bisexual               (Human               Rights               Campaign;               Mondimore;               Kennedy,               as               cited               in               Washington               &               Wall,               2006).

Akin               to               the               broad               population               of               African               American               male               students               on               campus               and               in               society,               college               enrollment               and               participation               of               this               subgroup               is               few               (Strayhorn,               Blakewood,               &               DeVita,               2008).

They               are               also               among               the               least               to               receive               an               adequate               amount               of               attention               in               the               higher               education               literature.

Strayhorn               et               al.

(2008)               described               the               common               factors               that               explain               the               underrepresentation               of               African               American               and               gay               African               American               men               in               college.

As               part               of               this               explanation,               "Black               men               are               often               described               using               disparaging               terms               such               as               dangerous,               endangered,               "at               risk,"               uneducable,               threatening,               and               lazy"               (Majors               &               Billson;               Strayhorn,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn               et               al,               2008,               p.

92).

Faculty               and               peers               then               accept               these               negatively               reinforced               stereotypes               as               true               (Strayhorn               et               al.,               2008).

Black               men               in               general               are               likely               to               internalize               these               thoughts,               in               which               they               become               self-fulfilled               and               self-defeating               (Steele,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn               et               al.,               2008).
               The               presence               of               a               few               African               American               gay               men               on               campus               exacerbates               the               common               experiences               of               the               broad               African               American               male               student               population.

African               American               gay               males               who               attend               PWIs               experience               alienation               and               isolation,               and               feel               unsupported               and               unwelcomed.

This               subgroup               has               to               contend               with               the               pressures               of               negative               societal               beliefs               about               homosexuality               (Feagin,               Vera,               &               Imani;               Garibaldi,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn               et               al.,               2008).

Furthermore,               gay               African               American               males               must               contend               with               homophobia               in               the               Black               community               (Washington               &               Wall,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn               et               al.,               2008),               and               racism               within               the               gay               community               (Boykin,               as               cited               in               Strayhorn               et               al.,               2008).

These               and               other               factors               support               why               there               are               relatively               few               gay               African               American               males               present               on               college               campuses;               let               alone               the               number               of               African               American               males               who               openly               identify               as               gay.
               The               connection               between               enrollment,               retention               and               graduation               for               gay               African               American               male               college               students               is               clear.

Students               among               this               subgroup               are               likely               to               experience               academic               and               social               difficulties               due               to               their               Blackness,               maleness,               and               gayness.

These               students               are               least               likely               to               persist               and               graduate               from               college,               perpetuating               a               trend               of               failed               persistence               among               this               group.

Lacking               are               qualified               narratives               about               gay               African               American               male               students               who               have               succeeded,               by               effectively               navigating               the               academic               and               social               systems.

Strayhorn               et               al.

(2008)               noted               that               the               "research               literature               is               virtually               silent               on               the               experiences               of               Black               gay               men               in               college"               (p.

92).
               It               is               worthy               to               note               that               Strayhorn               et               al.

(2008)               have               begun               the               process               of               advancing               qualitative               research               on               gay               African               American               males.

However,               more               research               is               necessary               to               build               upon               and               enhance               this               endeavor.

Any               substantive               findings               could               equip               higher               education               personnel               to               aid               in               student               persistence               and               graduation               among               this               group.

Research               findings               could               even               assist               some               members               of               the               campus               and               surrounding               community               to               come               to               terms               with               any               ingrained               feelings               of               homophobia.

Washington               and               Wall               (2006)               suggested               that               these               communities               must               be               ready               to               openly               embrace               African               American               gay               men;               by               offering               safe               spaces               for               dialogue               on               a               number               of               issues,               such               as               dating,               sex,               religion,               and               race.
               Black               Greek               Organizational               Members               
               Perhaps               the               most               reviled               Black               male               subgroup               on               college               campuses               are               those               individuals               who               belong               to               Black               Greek               organizations               (BGOs).

Historically,               the               role               of               Black               Greek               organizations               was               to               counter               the               racism               that               prevented               Black               students               from               joining               existing               White               organizations               (McClure,               2006).

Within               the               hostile               racial               climate               that               subsisted               on               traditionally               White               campuses,               African               American               men               yearned               to               have               "greater               contact               with               each               other               beyond               what               was               offered               through               their               classes"               (Wesley,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Harris,               2006,               p.

131).

Formed               at               Cornell               University               was               the               birth               of               the               nation's               first               Black               college               fraternity,               Alpha               Phi               Alpha               (Kimbrough;               Welsey,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Harris,               2006).

BGOs               advanced               the               mission               of               service,               and               sought               to               enhance               the               quality               of               life               and               college               experiences               of               Black               students.

They               also               sought               to               deal               with               political               and               social               issues               that               continue               to               face               the               Black               community               (Rodriguez,               as               cited               in               McClure,               2006).
               There               are               many               positive               effects               of               African               American               male               participation               in               BGOs.

One               effect               is               that               BGOs               continue               to               "serve               as               valuable               social               support               outlets               for               African               American               students,               especially               at               predominantly               White               institutions               (PWIs)"               (Patton               &               Bonner;               Schuh,               Triponey,               Heim               &               Nishimura;               and               Harper               et               al.,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Harris,               2006,               pp.

133-134).

This               support               outlet               is               important               for               African               American               male               collegians,               "as               undergraduate               fraternities               encourage               unity               among               members               and               offer               early               opportunities               for               leadership,               which               increases               retention"               (Sutton               &               Terrell,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Harris,               2006,               p.

134).

In               this               sense,               retention               scholars               are               likely               to               promote               African               American               males               to               participate               in               BGOs.

Another               outcome               is               that               BGOs               foster               a               "sense               of               belonging,               cultural               connections,               and               numerous               opportunities               to               gain               transferable               leadership               and               communication               skills"               (Sutton               &               Kimbrough,               as               cited               in               Harper               &               Harris,               2006,               p.

134).

This               benefit               would               prompt               higher               education               faculty               and               administrators               to               support               African               American               student               participation               in               BGOs.

Compared               to               unaffiliated               peers,               students               who               belong               to               BGOs               show               equal               levels               of               high               engagement               in               academic               and               non-academic               activities               (Harper               &               Harris,               2006).
               There               is               an               arguable               benefit               for               African               American               men               to               participate               in               Black               Greek               organizations.

Early               research               on               BGOs               found               that               "participation               in               same-race               organizations               did               not               increase               isolation               for               African               American               and               other               minority               students...but               actually               made               them               feel               more               a               part               of               the               campus               community"               (Moran,               Yengo,               &               Algier;               Murguia               et               al.;               and               Taylor               &               Howard-Hamilton,               as               cited               in               McClure,               2006).

This               finding               was               despite               the               problems               common               to               self-segregation               among               racial               and               ethnic               groups.

For               African               American               students,               their               participation               in               fraternities               can               be               viewed               as               "decreasing               the               isolation               of               its               members               and               providing               them               with               important               information               about               Black               history               and               culture"               (Moran               et               al.;               Smith               &               Moore,               as               cited               in               McClure,               2006,               p.

1040).
               Historically               Black               Colleges               and               Universities               
               In               the               latter               19th               century,               there               was               an               emerging               trend               to               educate               African               Americans.

Historically               Black               Colleges               and               Universities               (HBCUs)               met               the               educational               needs               for               African               Americans               in               this               country.

HBCUs               are               "institutions               established               prior               to               1964,               whose               principal               mission               is               the               education               of               Black               Americans"               (Provasnik               &               Shafer,               2004,               p.

1).

They               continue               to               serve               as               the               primary               source               of               teaching               and               learning               for               African               Americans               today.

In               historical               times,               the               future               growth               of               this               institution               began               when               Congress               established               the               Morrill               Act               of               1890,               launching               the               proliferation               of               HBCUs               in               some               states.Morrill               Act               funding               purported               to               "foster               educational               opportunity               for               all               students,               especially               newly               freed               Blacks"               (p.

1).
               The               Second               Morrill               Act               of               1890               systemized               educational               opportunities               for               Black               students.

This               act               mandated               that               states               with               dual               higher               education               systems               (meaning               all-White               and               non-White               systems)               were               required               to               provide               land-grant               institutions               for               both               systems.

As               a               result,               19               land-grant               institutions               for               Blacks               were               established               (Provasnik               &               Shafer,               2004).

While               most               HBCUs               are               currently               4-year               institutions,               "they               represent               a               diverse               set               of               institutions               in               19               states,               the               District               of               Columbia,               and               the               Virgin               Islands"               (p.

1).

Like               their               predominantly               White               institution               (PWI)               counterpart,               HBCUs               vary               according               to               their               institutional               type               (2-year,               4-year,               research               universities,               and               professional               schools),               institutional               control               type               (public               vs.

private),               or               whether               they               serve               single-sex               or               coeducational               students               (Provasnik               &               Shafer,               2004).
               HBCUs               have               lost               the               ability               to               attract,               enroll,               and               retain               a               significant               number               of               African               American               students               today               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006).

Nearly               75               years               ago,               "over               90               percent               of               Black               students               (approximately               100,000               in               1950)               were               educated               in               traditionally               Black               schools"               (Fleming,               as               cited               in               Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006,               p.

190).

In               2001,               "HBCUs               enrolled               just               12.9               percent               of               all               African               American               students               in               higher               education"               (p.

190).
               Student               Enrollment               at               HBCUs               
               A               repository               of               educational               data,               including               HBCU               student               enrollment               is               on               the               U.S.

Department               of               Education's               National               Center               for               Education               Statistics               website               (www.nces.ed.gov).

The               latest               data               show               that               almost               289,985               students               enrolled               at               HBCUs               in               the               fall               of               2001.

This               represented               1.8               percent               of               the               total               student               enrollment               at               all               U.S.

institutions.

Black               enrollment               at               HBCUs               accounted               for               13               percent               of               all               Black               student               enrollments               across               all               institutions.

Similar               to               national               and               institutional               enrollment               trends,               more               females               are               enrolled               at               HBCUs               than               males               (177,111               compared               to               112,874,               respectively)               (Provasnik               &               Shafer,               2004).

In               terms               of               institutional               preference,               "HBCU               students               were               more               likely               to               attend               public               institutions               than               private,               not-for-profit               institutions               (72               vs.

28               percent)"               (p.

2).

A               further               review               of               the               literature               or               future               research               may               delineate               the               reasons               why               HBCU               students               opt               for               public               institutions               at               a               higher               rate.
               HBCU               Participation               and               Graduation               Attainment               
               In               2008,               44               percent               of               Black               students               graduated               from               college               within               six               years,               compared               to               63               percent               of               their               White               peers               ("Here               Is               Good               News,"               2007/2008).

While               this               graduation               rate               for               Black               students               is               low,               there               is               data               that               suggest               a               strong               correlation               between               Black               student               enrollment               at               HBCUs               and               graduation               attainment.

In               2002,               awarded               were               28,846               bachelor's               degrees               at               HBCUs.

This               represents               21.5               percent               of               the               total               number               of               bachelor's               degrees               awarded               at               all               institutions.

The               total               number               of               bachelor's               degrees               conferred               at               HBCUs               in               2002               was               down               by               13               percentage               points               from               1977               (35               percent).

A               review               of               related               literature               around               bachelor's               degrees               awarded               (at               HBCUs)               during               the               1970s               may               offer               insight               into               the               reasons               for               the               high               conferral               rate.
               HBCUs               continue               to               produce               the               highest               rates               of               African               American               graduates               than               other               colleges               and               universities,               despite               fewer               resources               (Minor,               2008).

Although               HBCUs               represent               fewer               than               3               percent               of               all               post-secondary               institutions,               they               "produce               25               percent               of               African               American               graduates"               (Cook               &               Cordova,               as               cited               in               Minor,               2008,               p.

8).

HBCUs               conferred               22.6%               of               the               bachelor's               degrees               to               African               Americans               in               2002               (Collins               &               Homaifar,               2007).

According               to               Hubbard,               "approximately               40               percent               of               African               Americans               with               PhDs               earned               a               bachelors'               degree               from               HBCUs"               (as               cited               in               Minor,               p.

8).

Studies               have               "documented               increased               developmental               gains               and               increased               satisfaction               with               the               college               experience               among               African               American               college               students               who               attended               HBCUs               compared               to               their               counterparts               who               attend               historically               White               institutions"               (Berger               &               Milem;               and               Outcalt               &               Skewes-Cox,               as               cited               in               Minor,               p.

8).

This               data               support               the               importance               of               African               American               education               at               the               nation's               HBCUs.
               African               American               Men               at               HBCUs               
               There               is               a               substantial               amount               of               research               devoted               to               issues               facing               African               American               men               on               predominantly               White               institutions               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006).

Until               recently,               "little               research               has               been               offered               on               African               American               students               in               recent               years               without               comparing               them               with               African               American               students               at               PWIs"               (p.

194).

A               qualitative               study               examined               the               collective               experiences               of               African               American               men               at               HBCUs.

The               intent               of               this               study               was               to               explore               issues               facing               African               American               men               at               HBCUs               (Kimbrough               &               Harpers,               2006).
               There               were               focus               group               discussions               that               captured               data               on               student               experiences               in               five               broad               areas:               1.

Predisposition               to               college               (college               going               and               college               representation),               2.

Academic               achievement               (the               reasons               for               poor               performance               compared               to               same-race               female               peers),               3.

Involvement               and               leadership               development               (levels               of               involvement               in               out-of-class               activities               and               student               organizations),               4.

Interpersonal               relationship               (male-female               relationships),               and               5.

perceptions               of               predominantly               White               institutions               (climate               for               African               American               men               at               PWIs)               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006).

The               overall               findings               suggest               that               HBCUs               neglect               African               American               men.

More               specifically,               HBCUs               have               overlooked               "some               of               their               basic               needs               for               connection               and               nurturing,               especially               since               this               group               is               less               likely               to               reach               out               for               assistance               when               in               trouble"               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006,               p.

203).

Interestingly               enough,               this               finding               contrasts               with               the               general               thought               of               HBCUs               as               nurturing               and               supportive               environments               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006).

While               the               findings               of               this               study               are               generic,               it               presents               an               opportunity               for               "HBCUs               to               improve               the               overall               experiences               of               African               American               men               attending               these               institutions"               (Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006,               p.

207).
               Institutional               Choice               among               African               American               Students               
               There               is               a               considerable               amount               of               research               on               how               and               why               college               students               choose               particular               institutions.

The               majority               of               this               research               centered               on               non-minority               populations,               and               generalized               to               the               larger               student               population               (Patitu,               2000).

In               recent               years,               a               number               of               scholars               had               conducted               research               around               institutional               choice               for               African               Americans.

These               studies               advanced               general               choice               models               (which               were               developed               for               the               whole               student               body),               and               offers               insight               into               the               decision-making               process               for               African               Americans.
               Sevier               (1993/1994)               conducted               a               study               on               the               institutional               decision-making               process               of               African               American               high               school               juniors               (as               cited               in               Patitu,               2000).

In               this               study,               students               broadly               cited               areas               of               "academics,               non-academic               opportunities,               money,               people,               and/or               aspects               of               the               university"               (Patitu,               2000,               pp.

71-72),               as               factors               in               college               choice.

In               McDonough               and               Lising's               study               (1996),               sampled               were               freshmen               from               four               ethnic               groups,               including               African               Americans,               on               college               choice.

The               top               three               reasons               cited               among               this               sample               included               "good               academic               reputation               (57.1%),               offered               financial               aid               (44.3%),               and               graduates               go               to               graduate               schools               (36.5%)"               (McDonough               &               Lising,               as               cited               in               Patitu,               2000,               p.

72).

In               another               study,               Stewart               and               Post               (1990)               sampled               African               American,               Hispanic,               Native               American,               Asian,               and               Appalachian               white               freshmen               at               a               predominantly               white               university               in               the               Midwest.

The               outcome               of               this               study               determined               that               "Black               students               were               more               likely               to               attend               [the               university]               because               the               university               is               close               to               home               and               for               financial               reasons,               while               other               minority               groups               were               more               likely               to               attend               because               of               the               reputation               of               the               university"               (Stewart               &               Post,               as               cited               in               Patitu,               2000,               p.

72).

The               latter               study               was               distinct               from               the               previous               two               studies,               in               that               the               "top               issues               for               African               American               students               was               the               university               being               close               to               home"               (Patitu,               2000,               p.

72).
               Patitu               (2000)               conducted               research               that               primarily               addressed               the               reasons               African               American               male               college               students               chose               to               attend               a               large,               predominantly               white               institution               in               the               South.

The               findings               from               the               study               revealed               that               institutional               reputation               (national               reputation,               academic               standing               in               the               United               States,               and               school               prestige)               was               most               important.

Next               in               order               of               importance               was               funding               (academic               scholarships,               athletic               scholarships,               and               financial               aid),               proximity               (closeness               to               home               and               family               support),               and               aspects               of               the               university               (atmosphere,               sports,               campus               resources,               and               housing)               (Patitu,               2000).

While               these               findings               were               meaningful               to               this               context,               Patitu               (2000)               emphasized               that               "care               should               be               taken               when               transferring               the               results               to               other               similar               populations"               (p.

75).
               Institutional               choice               at               HBCUs               
               As               noted               above,               HBCUs               have               showed               a               gradual               decline               in               their               enrollment,               at               least               through               2001.

This               signifies               that               African               American               students               are               choosing               in               greater               numbers               to               attend               predominantly               White               institutions.

There               are               no               factors               in               the               literature               describing               HBCU               enrollment               choice               among               African               Americans.

Findings               from               research               conducted               by               Harper               (as               cited               in               Kimbrough               &               Harper,               2006),               suggests               that,               "some               HBCUs,               particularly               public               institutions,               unsystematically               and               ineffectively               market               themselves               to               prospective               students"               (p.

190),               which               may               explain               declining               enrollments.

Notwithstanding               the               current               enrollment               challenges               at               HBCUs,               they               continue               to               be               a               viable               choice               for               many               African               American               students,               particularly               for               high               achievers.
               Freeman               (as               cited               in               Freeman,               2002)               examined               the               background               characteristics               of               African               American               students               who               chose               to               enroll               in               HBCUs.

In               a               qualitative               study               conducted               on               21               high-achieving               African               American               students,               Freeman               (2002)               found               no               distinguishable               differences               between               students               who               attended               HBCUs               and               PWIs.

In               the               study,               the               participants               "all               grew               up               in               predominantly               Black               environments,               and               all               attended               predominantly               Black               high               schools"               (Freeman,               2002,               p.

353).

The               difference               lies               in               the               educational               background               of               the               students'               parents               and               their               philosophical               stance               around               participation               goals.

Freeman               (2002)               cited               Astin               and               Cross'               study               (1981),               which               found               that               Black               students               who               enrolled               in               HBCUs               tended               to               have               fathers               and               mothers               who               were               better               educated,               as               opposed               to               Black               students               who               attended               PWIs.

Both               Astin               and               Cross               noted               that               Black               students               in               Black               institutions               "were               more               concerned               about               the               political               structure               and               community               action,               whereas               those               attending               White               institutions               gave               higher               priority               to               financial               and               status               goal"               (Freeman,               2002,               p.

352).
               Across               all               institutional               types,               institutional               choice               among               African               American               students               is               dependent               on               the               amount               of               financial               aid               received               (Freeman,               2002).

In               the               decision-making               process,               Black               students               tend               to               select               PWIs               for               the               financial               assistance               and               HBCUs               for               their               low               tuition               (Freeman,               2002).

These               decisions               reflect               the               reality               that               African               American               families               continue               to               have               trouble               in               financing               higher               education               for               their               children               (Freeman,               2002).

Therefore,               institutional               choice               based               on               financial               aid               closely               parallels               the               previous               studies               discussed               above               (see               Sevier,               1993/1994;               McDonough               &               Lising,               1996;               Stewart               &               Post,               1990;               and               Patitu,               2000).
               Influence               contributes               to               choice               selection               of               HBCUs               among               African               American               students.

Freeman               (2002)               cited               three               major               influences               among               African               American               students               in               her               study.

The               first               major               influence               of               HBCU               choice               was               cultural               affinity.

Regardless               of               high               school               type,               African               American               students               "were               more               likely               to               consider               HBCUs               if               they               had               a               family               member,               a               teacher/counselor,               or               a               friend               who               was               connected               with               an               HBCU"               (p.

356).

As               identified               by               Astin               and               Cross,               "this               influence               has               remained               consistent               since               the               1970s"               (as               cited               in               Freeman,               2002,               p.

356).

Freeman               (as               cited               in               Freeman,               2002)               found               that               African               American               students               were               isolated               from               their               cultural               heritage.

Students               believed               that               by               enrolling               in               a               HBCU,               they               would               gain               a               deeper               understanding               of               their               cultural               heritage.

Conversely,               African               American               students               attending               predominantly               Black               high               schools               strongly               considered               PWIs               (Freeman,               2002).

Accordingly,               "students               reported               a               need               to               share               their               culture               with               other               groups               and               wanted               a               PWI               because               the               real               world               is               not               Black"               (Freeman,               2002,               p.

356).
               Referenced               above               is               a               selection               of               the               research               and               findings               around               HBCU               selection               among               African               Americans.

Perhaps,               there               is               a               more               powerful               sentiment               of               HBCU               choice               selection               among               African               American               students.

Beverly               Tatum,               president               of               Spelman               College               in               Atlanta,               GA,               noted               that               Black               colleges               affirm               the               identity               of               African               American               students,               while               at               the               same               time,               "giving               them               the               background               to               meet               students               with               diverse               backgrounds               and               perspectives"               (Tatum,               2005,               para.

1).

Tatum               summed               that               college               choice               is               a               "reflection               of               identity-a               statement               about               how               you               see               yourself,               who               you               are               now,               and               who               you               hope               to               become"               (Tatum,               2005,               para.

4).

Furthermore,               "students               are               drawn               to               environments               where               they               see               themselves               reflected               in               powerful               ways,               places               where               they               see               themselves               as               central               to               the               educational               enterprise"               (para.

4).
               Acting               White               Phenomenon               among               High               Achieving               African               American               Males               at               HBCUs               
               Described               above               were               factors               of               institutional               choice               among               African               Americans               who               chose               to               attend               HBCUs.

Also               described               were               a               few               of               the               benefits               for               African               American               students               when               enrolling               in               this               type               of               institution.

The               decision               for               an               African               American               student               to               enroll               at               a               HBCU               may               be               detrimental               to               her               or               his               academic               success.

High               achieving               students,               particularly               African               American               males,               are               prone               to               having               negative               experiences               at               HBCUs.

These               students               are               prone               to               such               experiences               because               of               their               intellectual               achievements               and               aptitude.

Consequently,               these               students               learn               to               disengage               academically               from               their               peers,               and               the               institution               at               large               (Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006).
               There               is               a               perception               among               same               race               peers               (other               African               Americans)               that               academically               astute               Black               males               are               "acting               White."               Acting               White               describes               how               high               achieving               African               American               students               must               cope               with               the               constant               accusations               by               their               peers               for               manifesting               characteristics               of               "Whiteness"               (Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006).

The               phenomenon               largely               manifests               itself               in               predominantly               Black               and               racially               integrated               contexts               (Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006).

Coping               is               often               a               challenge               for               high               achieving               African               Americans.

Their               same-race               peers               accuse               them               of               being               disloyal               to               the               Black               community,               and               charge               them               with               being               an               "Uncle               Tom"               or               a               "sellout"               (Ogbu               &               Simons,               as               cited               in               Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006).
               According               to               Ogbu               and               Simons               (as               cited               in               Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006),               "African               American               students               are               usually               supportive               of               their               same-race               peers               when               they               earn               good               grades,               but               it               is               the               embracing               of               perceivably               White               attitudes               and               behaviors               used               to               earn               those               grades               that               are               deemed               problematic"               (p.

341).

The               mentoring               of               high               achieving               African               American               students               can               mitigate               the               challenges               that               they               experience               at               HBCUs               around               "acting               White"               (Ogbu               &               Simons,               as               cited               in               Harper,               "Peer               Support,"               2006).

Furthermore,               an               omnipresence               of               other               high               achieving               African               American               students               may               also               strengthen               their               resolve               to               achieve               in               the               midst               of               these               challenges               (Palmer               &               Hilton,               n.d.).
               Summary               of               the               Literature               Review               
               The               purpose               of               this               literature               review               was               to               discuss               enrollment               and               participation               trends               of               student               populations               in               American               higher               education.

As               the               student               demographic               on               college               campuses               evolves,               higher               education               officials,               policymakers,               and               stakeholders               will               need               to               be               more               involved               and               accountable               for               effective               educational               practices.

Academic               and               social               programming               must               reflect               the               educational               needs               of               this               diverse               student               demographic.

This               review               also               highlighted               African               American               male               enrollment               and               their               participation               in               higher               education.

Particularly               for               African               American               males,               and               other               underrepresented               minority               groups,               there               is               a               strong               need               for               improving               policies               and               developing               best               practices               around               enrollment               and               retention.

The               impact               of               the               responses               toward               meeting               student               needs               will               go               a               long               way               in               changing               the               scope               of               American               higher               education               and               society.
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(2010).

Students               of               color               make               dramatic               gains               in               college               enrollment               but               still               trail               Whites               in               the               rate               at               which               they               attend               college.

Retrieved               from               Government               Printing               Office:               http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Publications_and_Products&CONTENTID=18725&TEMPLATE=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm
               Callan,               P.M.

(2001).

Reframing               access               and               opportunity:               Problematic               state               and               federal               higher               education               policy               in               the               1990s.

In               D.

Heller               (Ed.).

The               states               and               public               higher               education               policy:               Affordability,               access,               and               accountability               (pp.

83-99).

Baltimore:               The               Johns               Hopkins               University               Press.
               Collins,               E.G.,               &               Homaifar,               A.

(2007).

HBCUs               in               control:               Control               programs               at               historically               black               colleges               and               universities.

IEEE               Control               Systems,               27(4),               106-112.

doi:               10.1109/MCS.2007.384128
               Day,               J.C.,               &               Newburger,               E.C.

(2002).

The               big               payoff:               Educational               attainment               and               synthetic               estimates               of               work-life               earnings.

(Current               Population               Reports,               Special               Studies,               P23-210).

Washington,               DC:               Commerce               Dept.,
               Economics               and               Statistics               Administration,               Census               Bureau.

Retrieved               from               http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf
               Freeman,               K.,               &               Thomas,               G.E.

(2002).

Black               colleges               and               college               choice:               Characteristics               of               students               who               choose               
               HBCUs.

The               Review               of               Higher               Education,               25(3),               349-358.

doi:               10.1353/rhe.2002.0011
               Hareyan,               A.

(2007).

Today's               college               freshmen               have               family               income               60%               above               national               average.

HULIQ:               Citizen               New               Review.

Retrieved               from               http://www.huliq.com/18091/today-s-college-freshmen-have-family-income-60-above-national-average
               Harper,               S.

(2006).

Black               male               students               at               public               flagship               universities               in               the               U.S.

Status,               trends,               and               implications               for               policy               and               practice.

Washington,               DC:               Government               Printing               Office.
               Harper,               S.

(2006).

Peer               support               for               African               American               male               college               achievement:               Beyond               internalized               racism               and               the               burden               of               "acting               white."               Journal               of               Men's               Studies,               14(3),               337-358.
               Harper,               S.

&               Harris,               F.

(2006).

The               role               of               black               fraternities.

In               M.

Cuyjet               (Ed.).

African               American               Men               in               College               (pp.

128-153).

San               Francisco:               Jossey-Bass.
               Hear               is               good               news               on               Black               student               college               graduation               rates               but               a               huge               racial               gap               persists.

(2007/2008).

[Features].

Journal               of               Blacks               in               Higher               Education,               58,               46-56.

Retrieved               from               Journal               of               Blacks               in               Higher               Education               website:               http://www.jbhe.com/features/58_gradratesracialgap.html
               Kimbrough,               W.M.,               &               Harper,               S.R.

(2006).

African               American               men               at               historically               black               colleges               and               universities.

In
               M.

Cuyjet               (Ed.).

African               American               Men               in               College               (pp.

189-209).

San               Francisco:               Jossey-Bass.
               McClure,               S.M.

(2006).

Voluntary               association               membership:               Black               greek               men               on               a               predominantly               white               campus.

The               Journal               of               Higher               Education.

77(6).

1036-1057.
               Messer,               K.L.

(2006).

African               American               male               college               athletes.

In               M.

Cuyjet               (Ed.),               African               American               Men               in               College               (pp.

154-173).

San               Francisco:               Jossey-Bass.
               Minor,               J.T.

(2008).

Contemporary               HBCUs:               Considering               institutional               capacity               and               state               priorities.

Retrieved               from               Michigan               State               University,               College               of               Education,               Department               of               Educational               Administration               website:               https://www.msu.edu/~jtminor/docs/MINOR_Contemporary_HBCU_Report_2008.pdf
               Palmer,               R.T.,               &               Hilton,               A.A.

(n.d.).

The               impact               of               synergy               created               by               a               Black               college               community               and               its               influence               on               challenging               acting               white.

Call               &               Response:               The               Scholarly               Journal               of               the               National               Black               Graduate               Student               Association.

2(1).

1-31.
               Patitu,               C.L.

(2000).

College               choice               and               satisfaction               level               of               African               American               male               college               students.

Journal               of               African               American               Men.

5(1).

71-92.
               Porter,               K.

(2002).

The               value               of               a               college               degree.

Retrieved               from               ERIC               database.

(ED470038).
               Provasnik,               S.,               &               Shafer,               L.L.

(2004).

Historically               Black               Colleges               and               Universities,               1976               to               2001               (NCES               2004-062).

U.S.

Department               of               Education,               National               Center               for               Education               Statistics,               Washington,               DC:               Government               Printing               Office.

Retrieved               from               http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2004/2004062.pdf
               Snyder,               T.D.

(2010).

Mini-Digest               of               Education               Statistics,               2009)               (NCED               2010-014).

National               Center               for               Education
               Statistics,               Institute               of               Education               Sciences,               U.S.

Department               of               Education.

Washington,               DC.

Retrieved               from               http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/2008023.pdf
               Standler,               R.B.

(2001).

Why               attend               college?

Retrieved               from               http://www.rbs0.com/edu.htm
               Strayhorn,               T.L.,               Blakewood,               A.M.,               &               DeVita,               J.M.

(2008).

Factors               affecting               the               college               choice               of               African               American               gay               male               undergraduates:               Implications               for               retention.

NASAP               Journal.

11(1),               88-102.
               Tatum,               B.

(2005).

Historically               black               colleges               remain               relevant:               Black               schools               affirm               African-American               identity               and               diversity.

Retrieved               from               http://www.america.gov/st/educ-english/2008/April/20080518221743SrenoD0.3849756.html
               Thelin,               J.R.

(2004).

A               history               of               American               higher               education.

Baltimore,               MD:               The               Johns               Hopkins               University               Press.
               Washington,               J.,               &               Wall,               V.A.

African               American               gay               men.

In               M.

Cuyjet               (Ed.),               African               American               Men               in               College               (pp.

174-188).

San               Francisco:               Jossey-Bass.






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